Introductio2

Transilvania names the central part of Romania, surrounded by Carpatian Mountains and striped by many rivers. During the antiquity Transilvania was a part of Dacia, as well as the others parts of nowadays Romanian territory.

The name Transilvania comes from the Latin words "terra ultrasilvana" – the country after the forests. This region was continuously inhabited from ancestral times. During the dark middle age it was organised in Romanian "terrae" – countries (named in Hungarian diplomas Terra Blachorum, like: Tara Fagarasului, Tara Barsei, Tara Hategului).

What was the influence of Transilvanian history for the Romanians?

Transilvania was the centre of dacian civilisation: almost on every peak of Carpatian Mountains a dacian city can be founded. Antiquity historians give relations on dacians since the VI century b.Chr. Herodot narrates that dacians inhabit the territory between Balkan Mountains, northern Carpatians and western coast of Black Sea. The centre of this region is Transilvania, with its dacians archaeological sites.

Dacians known history goes through a list of kings opposing the Roman Empire to the last dacian king Decebal. In the year 106 AD the roman emperor Traian, after two harsh wars conquered Dacia. In the memory of this great success two impressing monuments were builded by the Romans: Traian’s Column in Rome and Tropaeum Traiani in Dacia (nowadays Adam Clissi, in Dobrogea).

The conquest was followed by the implementation of roman administrative structure and roman civilisation. This result of this process are the Romanians, which remained on this territory after the redraw of roman administration in 271 AD under the pressure of barbarian migrations. After this event appear a lack of the written sources on this region, supplied by archaeological proofs (villages, cemeteries, coins, tools inventory) that certificate the continuity of agriculture based communities.

The Christianity followed an unusual way for Romanians: it went from down up, it was not recorded as a political act. The Romanian basic church vocabulary originates in the Latin language: biserica – basilica (church), Dumnezeu – Domine Deo (God), cruce – crux (cross), a boteza – baptisare, crestin – christianus, rugaciune – roqationem (prayer), inchina – incline (bend), pacat – peccatum (sin), Paste – Paschae (Easter).

All over transilvanian territory were discovered monuments and Christian cult proofs. They appear especially in roman urban centres like Napoca (Cluj), Apulum (Alba Iulia), Potaissa (Turda).

Middle age writers (Byzantinian, Germans, Hungarians, and Russians) knew Transilvanian Romanians as a Latin origin population. That’s why Romanians were named as Vlachs, word that in the middle age generally labelled the romance populations.

What was the Transilvanian political situation during the Hungarian migrations?

Under the pressure of Bulgarian and Petcheneg tribes the Hungarian tribes (Finno-Ugric populations with origins from Altai Mountains in Asia) left the northern Black Sea region (Atelkuz) for Panonia between 896-900 AD. They followed a route through northern Carpatians settling down in the great plains, from where they continuously tried to conquer Transilvania.

Predicus magister, the nameless notary (known as Anonymus) of Hungarian king Bela the 2^nd (1173-1196 AD) narrates in his chronicle that the Hungarian chieftains found out at the end of 9^th century about the "goodness of Ultrasilvana country, where Gelu the Romanian had his lands" (bonitate terrae Ultrasilvane ubi Gelu quidam Blachus dominium tenebat). This Gelu fought for his land three wars and died in the last at Căpuş. The same Anonymus certificates the existence of other two dukes: Menumorut having his lands in the areal of Cris rivers and Glad ruling in nowadays Banat. Anonymus records the determined refusal of Menumorut to give up his land to duke Arpad, invoking the authority of his protector the Byzantine Emperror.The information offered by Anonymus are really valuable, his chronicle being considered as an important historical source (Balint Homan in Revue des Etudes Hongroises, III, 1925, p. 726).

Anonymus narrates about blaci (Romanians) living not only in Transilvania but in Pannonia and along Tisa river too where the Hungarians found Blachii ac pastores Romanorum (The Romanians, Roman’s shepherds). While the Hungarians found themselves at the north of Carpatians in the Rusin’s country they were persuaded by the local dukes to cross the mountains and reach Pannonia, a very good country inhabited by Slaves, Bulgarians and Romanians. The existence of Romanians is certificated in Banat where Glad fought the Hungarians with an army consisting of Cumans, Bulgarians and Romanians. Other chronicles covering the 12^th to 14^th centuries (Simon de Keza, Henric de Mungeln, Chronicon Monacense, Chronicon Pasoniense, Legenda Snacti Gerhardi) confirmate the existence of Romanian middle age states. It is a fact that beginning with the 9^th century sources from Byzantine Empire, Germany, Armenia and Russia certificate the Romanian under the names as Vlahi, Blaci, Blachi, Volohi, Balak, Walachen, Olah. All these names are intended to describe a romance population settled in the Danube-Carpatian area.

The military resistance in front of Hungarian tribes was possible only due to a demographical, economical and political development of this population inside the area of Transilvania. The first phase of conquest at the beginning of 9^th century consisted of fights between Hungarian chieftains and local dukes. Some of these states from Crişana, northwestern Transilvania and Banat maintained their independence under rulers as Ahtum, Gyula – followers of the Hungarian chieftains. In the second phase of Hungarian expansion Stephen the Holly, who adopted the Christianity under the Pope of Rome, conquest the territories ruled by Gyula and Ahtum (the last found himself under the authority of Byzantine emperor just like his predecessor, Menumorut). Then to the end of 12^th century the Hungarian rule forwards step by step into Transilvania until reaches the Carpatian Mountains.

3. Why Transilvania couldn’t become a part of Hungarian State?

The middle age Hungarian State never reached a political and territorial assimilation of Transilvania in the frame of its borders. Even under the bureaucratic regime of Austrian administration Transilvania remained bound to the Romanians principalities. The attempt to isolate Transilvania from the principalities and to transform it into a part of Austrian economy by vamal taxes policy during the rule of Maria Teresia was a complete failure. Reports from Aulic Chamber between 1777 – 1779 underlined permanently that Transilvanian’s sales to Moldova and Muntenia valued 2.947.169 guldens while the sales to Hungaria and Austria where about 64.569 guldens; the value of Transilvanian’s imports from Moldova and Muntenia was 4.157.055 guldens while the imports from Austria and Hungaria valued only 172.408 guldens.

Transport routes to Hungaria consisted another reason of segregation: there were only two ways through Szeged and Szolnok, while Transilvania was bound to two days distance Moldova and Muntenia by no less then 24 passes and roads. The distance between Transilvania and Adriatic Sea (maritime debauchee of Hungary) is about 800 km. The low importance of Hungarian commerce for Transilvania become more clear as soon as we take a look at the Transilvanian measure system and currency, which are completely different from those in use in Hungary.

Isolated from the great plains by mountains and Tisa river’s swamps, Transilvania was never tied to Budapest, Transilvania always had a different history towards Hungary. Therefore under the crown of Stephen the Holly Hungary and Transilvania were two separate entities with separate political and administrative structure. The transilvanians ignored the geography of Hungary at the same time being used to that of Muntenia: "the szekely are thinking of Hungary as having mountains as their territory, they only heard of Szeged but even the kids playing in the street know Bucharest, Brăila, Sinaia…" (Hegedus Lorant, A szekelyek Kivandorlasa Romaniaban, Budapest, 1902).

The voievodat is the old transilvanian political organisation and it belongs to the Romanian system – in Moldova and Muntenia. It maintained itself in Transilvania until 1526 when Hungary became a part of Turkish Empire. Then Transilvania became a great principality, completely separated from Hungarian crown. The old political organisation had the same basis as those of Muntenia and Moldova: the voievod had military, justice and administrative competence. Having full political authority the only difference consisted in the lack of total independence: the transilvanian voievod was bound by feudal system to the Hungarian king, but this dependence was only formal, any interference into transilvanian internal affairs being considered as abusive.

The political system of Transilvania was a Romanian system that couldn’t be destroyed by Hungarian immigration in spite of numerous attempts. The Hungarian administrative structure consisted of comitat, a copy of Carolinian system, while at the east of Tisa the only political reality remained the voievodat. Therefore a Hungarian writer, in search of the causes that cut off the Transilvania from Hungary, says: "the compass of Transilvania seemed to be oriented towards east because of majority orthodox population while Hungary was oriented towards west" (Alex Szilagyi, Erdelyorszag tortenete, Budapest, 1859).

How could be explained the lack of Hungarian kings influence over transilvanian religious confession? It is simple: the Hungarian invasion’s strength consisted not in the number of individuals but in military power. Their number was so low that they had not only to take the native’s confession (like Gyula who travelled to Constantinople to convert himself to oriental Christianity) but to maintain the political organisation and administrative structure. The Romanian’s cnezat and voievodat from Banat, Haţeg, Bihor, Făgăraş, Maramureş preserved their independence for long time. The reaction of Hungarian kingdom produced later through colonisation due to the fact that the Hungarians never had the demographically strength to impose their organisation. The tribes arrived in Europe from Asia were weak in number, there are population that faced a complete disappear from history like cumans, petchenegs, huns, avars. With a number of about 200.000 men Hungarian kings were not able to face the apostolic duties they took over, they couldn’t assimilate or even integrate the provinces they invaded. That’s why they had to colonise szekely and germans and bring the Teutonic Order to ensure the success of catholic propaganda and defence of Carpatian Mountains. The szekely settled at first in the western Transilvania and then at the beginning of 12^th century they moved away to the place where we can find them nowadays. Their origins are still under the question mark. They are supposed to be the followers of avars, other Turkish population or descendants from Chazar’s Empire. Along their history they preserved specific way of life, institutions and administrative structure. The szekely took serious their mission of defending the east border of Hungarian kingdom, manifested themselves as valuable warriors during the middle age, taking part in any conflict at the east or south of Carpatians.

The transilvanian Germans originated from Westphalia, Thuringia, Bavaria, and Hessa and are known as sachsen. They developed their own culture and supplied the Transilvanian economy with major cities, manufacturers and tradesmen.

During the attempt of turks to invade the central Europe romanian cnezi and voievozi fought a lot of wars in order to protect Transilvania. A romanian army under the command of Nicolae Gara fought in the Kossvopolje battle on the serbian side. Later romanian cnezi are allies of hungarians in the siege of Golubac (1428). There were a lot of romanian nobles fighting the turks: Petru Bizare, Cândea, Măcicaş, Ioan Corvin, Pavel Cneazul, Nicolae Vizere. At least for the last one we can trace his military career: starting as a descendant of noble family from Ohaba Bistra, near Caransebeş, in 1429 a diploma from Sigismund of Luxembourg recognize his heroical deeds in the battle of Golubac. In 1433 Nicolae Vizere is named as miles aulicus, kind of a "soldier of the royal court" and receives as a reward 14 feuds in Caransebeş district. Between 1438 and 1444 Nicolae Vizere occupied the office of commander in chief of many strongholds: Zewryn, Gewrin, Mehadia. A diploma from 1444, issued by Ioan of Hunedoara, certificates that Nicolae de Vizere took part in the campaigns between 1442 and 1443 against Turkish Empire. In 1447 our hero was named commander of Bran castle and kept this office until 1470. This is the cursus honorum of a nobleman who fought against turks for almost 20 years before hi’s "retired" as commander of a border castle. Another career of a Romanian nobleman, this time reching the highest peak, was that of Ioan of Hunedoara. Descending from a father that followed a similar path with Nicolae de Vizere, Ioan of Hunedoara followed the military career that led him to the office of governor of Hungarian kingdom. During his whole life Ioan of Hunedoara fought the Turks, reaching the performance of commanding the armies of three Romanian principalities: Transilvania, Moldova and Muntenia. His son Matei Corvin became king of Hungary, one of the most glamorous kings of Reinassance. During his rule Matei Corvin tried to ease the situation of peasants in Transilvania with little succes due to the oposition of Hungarian noblety.

After the death of Matei Corvin, the last attempt of a large scale crusade against turks turn into a huge uprising. Lacking the mood for fighting the turks hungarian noblemen convoked every man desiring to go in a crusade. The result consisted in a large mass of peasants , hoping the ease of taxes, that turned against the hungarian noblety under the lead of Gheorghe Doja. The uprising was smashed with cruelty (Doja was executed and his friends were forced to eat pieces from his body) destroying the economical basis of the Kingdom. The first turkish invasion in 1526 turn into smoke the hungarian kingdom for almost 200 years. From the battle of Mohacs (1526) on Transilvania became an independent state. Its princips maintained a political and economical network with Moldova and Muntenia, sharing the same concerns against the Tukish Empire. At the same time transilvanian Romanians began to lack the representation in the high political strucrures of Transilvania.

4. The influence of Transilvania’s dependence to Hungarian Kingdom on transilvanian Romanians between 14^th – 16^th century.

Until the extinction of arpadian dinasty, the Hungarian kings didn’t make any difference among their subjects from an ethnic or religious point of view. Romanian voievozi from Transilvania kept their privileges recognized by Hungarian kings. This situation became worse in the second half of 14^th century. From 1351 the institution of Loca credibila is reorganized: catholic churches and monasteries are charged to issue and preserve notarial and civil diplomas. Thus the orthodox religious structures were bannished to take part in administrative affairs. In 1366 king Ludovic stated that no land possesion diploma should be rekognized without a royal admission, depending on the loyality to the king. This loyality began more and more to be assimilated to the catholic confession, so the Romanian noblemen who maintained their orthodox confession were push off from the high administrative structures.

All those measures were connected with the creation of independent Romanians Principalities. The angevin king Ludovic feared the Romanians voievozi living in Maramureş who opposed his politics. In 1365 king Ludovic ordered that the lands of Bogdan voievod of Maramureş to be confiscated. Bogdan voievod took his fidels and cross the mountains in Moldova where he continued succesfully his resistance, thus he became voievod of Moldova. A diploma issued by Ludovic in 1366 was intended to pursue special measures against Romanians (specialiter olahi). After this diploma many Romanian noblemen converted to catholicism, changing their names like: Kendeffy, Josika, Huszar, Walaczy etc. But the large mass of romanians kept their confession, therefore facing discrimination and segregation, being considered as tolerated in Transilvania.

The follower of Ludovic, Sigismund de Luxemburg enforced this kind of measures and after the peasants uprising in Bobâlna (1437) another event occurred. The hungarian noblety, sachsen leaders and szekely noblemen signed an agreement, known as Unio trium nationum, which put the Romanians and orthodox confession outside the law. The middle age lawyer Stefan Werboczy’s words express the Romanian’s situation: tam nihil jurist habet – they have no right, adding that their only right is to ask to be payed for their work or products.

5. What became Transilvania after the extinction of Hungarian Kingdom?

In 1526 after the battle of Mohacs the Turks ocupied Hungary and turned it into pasalic. Northern Hungary was taken by Habsburg Empire and Transilvania became an autonomous principality under the sovereignity of Turkish Empire. The autonomy status of Transilvania shows that Transilvania was considered as having a different statehood from Hungary. Basicly the Transilvanian situation is similar to that of the two others Romanian principalities, Moldova and Muntenia. It is known that during their expansion in the eastern Europethe Turks destroyed systematically the occupied christian states: Byzantine Empire, Serbian Tzarat, Bulgarian Tzarat, Hungarian Kingdom. The Romanian states Moldova and Muntania that combined harsh wars with skilled negotiations maintained their autonomy. Turkish Empire was forced to take a different way and recognize their autonomy in exchange of an yearly amount of money. So the Romanian principalities maintained their administrative structures and laws without turkish military forces and muslim churches, no islam convertion – which was the situation in Hungary. Transilvania had a similar treatment as Moldova and Muntenia. It is important to remember that when the habsburgs conqusted Transilvania recognized it’s autonomous status, what never happened for Hungary until the middle of 19^th century.

One must mention that during the 15^th-16^th century some parts of Transilvania were under the rule of Romanian principalities Moldova (Ciceu, Cetatea de Balta) or Muntenia (Bran, Amlaş, Făgăraş, Haţeg). In order to stop the continuous attempts of habsburgs to conquer Transilvania, Moldova’s voievozi (Petru Rareş, Alexandru Lăpuşneanu, Iliaş, Ştefan Rareş) or those from Muntenia (Moise vodă, Radu Paisie, Mircea Ciobanul, Pătrtaşcu vodă) engaged in nomerous military expeditions.

6. What is the meaning of 1600’s unification of Transilvania, Moldova and Muntenia?

The first unification of Romanian principalities (the revival of ancient Dacia) was realized in 1600 by Mihai the Brave, voievod of Muntenia.

In 1594 Muntenia, Moldova and Transilvania allied against Turkish Empire and in the next year started the war. Mihai the Brave distinguished himself, prooving to be the best leader of the christian alliance. But under the pressure of the Turkish Empire’s allies Moldova and Transilvania left the christian alliance.

In order to reunite the forces of Romanian ethnicity and to rebuild the alliance against turks Mihai the Brave unite the three principalities, becoming the ruler of all romanian countries with the title "Mihai, voievod by God’s grace, ruler of Muntenia, Transilvania and the whole country of Moldova". It was the first action that moved the inhabitants of three political different countries sharing the same language, customs and religion.

This obviousness of romanians identity on the entiare ancient Dacian territory was a clear point for the humanists that knew the real situation in this areal: Aenea Silvio Piccolomini (Pope Pius the 2^nd), Poggio Bracciolini, Raffaelo Volterrano, Nicolaus Olahus (bishop of Strigoniu, having romanian origins), Antonio Bonfini (secretary of Mathias Corvinus), Christian Schaeseus, Georg Reicherstorfer, Laurentiu Toppeltin and others.

European politicians and diplomats from 16^th century knew that the romanian principalities constituted the best military basis for an atack against the Turkish Empire. At the same time there were attempts of unification under foreigners like: the italian condottiere Aloisio Gritti in 1532, count Potemkin, favourite of tzarine Ecaterina who dreamed at the crown of kingdom of Dacia; or the greek diplomat Capodistria who proposed in 1828 a "kingdom of Dacia" under the rule of Russian Empire.

In his chronicle the Transilvanian Stefan Szamoskozy saw the national character of Mihai the Brave’s action underlining that Mihai was really welcome in Transilvania because the romanian population saw in him one of them, a romanian monarch. This national character is more obvious in the measures that Mihai took as principe of Transilvania: romanian noblemen in the princiar council, romanian commanders in the strongholds, use of romanian language in the diplomas, the establishment of Romanian Mitropolit in Alba Iulia.

Even it was a short time unification (Mihai the Brave was killed by mercenaries from imperial army), it remained a symbol for the generations to come for three centurie until the unification from 1918.

7. When and how fell Transilvania under the Habsburgs’ rule?

Between 1683-1699 the Turks were driven back from central Europe and the Habsburg Empire conquered Transilvania. This was a success for the Catholicism too through the conversion of many to the Greek Catholic confession. The Habsburg House tried by all means to reduce the strength of Hungarian Calvinism in the area, it succeeded to bring back to Catholicism some of Hungarian noblemen and it was an important point on their agenda to attract as many Romanians as possible. In the frame of this action Romanian bishop Teofil and 38 protopops were convinced to sign a diploma sent to emperor Leopold the 1^st in which they recognized the unification with the Church of Rome. Atanasie, the follower of Teofil, after some hesitation, approved the act of unification in 1701 receiving the title of "Bishop of Romanians". Emperor Leopold issued a diploma that recognized the Romanians that became Greek-Catholics as being part of "country citizens". This diploma contradicted the Transilvanian legislation at that time: in Approbatae Constitutiones (from 1653) Romanians were considered as living in Transilvania temporarily "as long as the noblemen will agree to this" (usque ad beneplacitum Principum et Regnicolarum). There is no doubt that the Romanians that accepted the unification with Church of Rome did it in order to be recognized as citizens and escape the merciless discrimination. But the Hungarian oligarchy in Transilvania strongly opposed this diploma basing on 200 years old legislation. (Werboci’s Tripartitum from 1514). The noblemen didn’t want to accept the political rights for Romanians. Emperor Leopold didn’t pressed because he was involved in the Spanish wars at that time. The only gain for the Romanians from the imperial diplomawere the rights concerning their confession: they were free to practice the orthodox religion that was until then interdicted de jure.

All those facts are convincing for the perennial discrimination of Romanians in Transilvania. The Hungarian noblemen were afraid of the number of Romanians, a matter which is described in the next section.

8. Demographical situation in Transilvania from 15^th to 19^th century

Beginning with the 2^nd half of 14^th century severe measures were initiated against Romanians living in Transilvania. This was a necessity from a catholic point of view: Hungarian kings assumed a apostolic mission, blocked by the large number of orthodox Romanians. In this respect after the uprising rfom 1437 was closed the agreement known as Unio trium Nationum which excluded the romanians from the political life, maintained until 1846. This agreement had as main task the protection of Hungarian, Szekely and Sachsen – the three privileged nations opposed to the discriminated Romanians.

The first demographical census on Transilvania from 1781 was based on confessional criteria. The results of this census made the szkely Benko Joseph to write: "The number of Romanians is so large that it exceeds the number of alltogether three nations". According to this census there were 527.243 Romanians and 392.190 of other nationalities: 140.043 calvins (Hungarians and Szekely), 130.365 lutherans (Sachsen), 93.135 catholics (Hungarians and Szekely) and 28.647 antitrinitarians.

Those figures are confirmed by a document from Budapest archives concerning the election of the Romanian mitropolit: 1.110 localities inhabitated only by Romanians (jure valahico) and 810 localities with mixed population out of a total of 2064 localities. In 1760 the census ordered by general von Buccow certificates a number of 155.434 Romanian families.

I.H. Benigni in Handbuch der Statistk und Geographie des Grossfurstentums Siebenburgen indicates for 1836 a number of 1.331.989 Romanians and 487.084 Hungarians. Comparing those figures with those of 18^th century one can see that the number of Romanians grew with 824.746 (due to the high birth rate) while the Hungarians number grew with 225.259. But still between 1839-1900 the Hungarian statistics were mystified in such way that the oficial number of Romanians was 1.421.000 (basicaly a 0 growth rate in almost 100 years!) while the Hungarians reached 806.000 (from 155.000 in 1760). The only answer is the forced "Hungarization". An example is the book Hogy magyarositsuk a vezetekneveket (How to hungarize family names) published in Budapest, 1889, which contained instructions how to modify Romanian names. Still the Romanians oposed by naming their children with latin names.

The british historian R. W. Seton Watson in his study The racial problem in Hungary analyzing the population statistics in Hungary wrote that out of 8.651.000 Hungarians 858.378 were jews and 82000 were gypsies – the only scope of this being to ensure the Hungarian majority. In 1900 despite all efforts the figures showed only a 45% Hungarians living in Transilvania.

There is a worthy opinion of a german publisher, Friedrich Naumann, from the book Mitteleuropa: "the Hungarians know that their number is less than half of their country population … so they are enforced to dismiss any trace of democracy and to increase the number of Hungarians. A hungarian sovereignity will not be assured until there will be at least 50% Hungarians, this is the reason of their wild lust for hungarization. And in fact they achieved a lot of succes …"

9. How resisted the Transilvanian Romanians to the Habsburgs and Hungarian’s opression?

Romanian’s resitance took various forms. There was violent resistance on many occasions, especially uprisings: in 1437 at Bobilna, in 1514 under Gheorghe Doja, in 1570 an uprising led by Gheorghe Craciun. At the beginning of 18th century during the kuruts wars under Gligor Pintea Romanian volunteers fought on Racoczy’s side hoping to be released from serfdom.

Another point was the rejection of numerous attempts of conversion to catholicism or protestantism. Facing the large number of Romanians the protestant’s movements tried by all means to attract the orthodox christians. During the 17th century Gabriel Bethlen adressed the Constantinopol Patriarch secret letters trying to obtain the agreement of a conversion or at least to convince that it would better for the Romanian bishop to accept some points from the calvin confession. In his answer the Patriarch Chiril Lucas draw the attention to the fact that something like this is impossible.

At the end of 16th century Brasov, an important city in south east Transivania, became an important printing center for Romanians. Here Coresi, a romanian priest, translated and printed in Romanian language a large number of religious books, maintaining the ancient orthodox confession. In Alba Iulia the mitropolit Simion Stefan printed in the 17th century other religious books.

The same way reacted the Romanians during the campaign of conversion to greek-catholic confession. The priests that took this confession did it hoping that they will receive an ease of taxes and political rights. As far as these promises were not kept made the romanian bishop Inochentie Micu Klein to start a fight for Romanians’ rights. Mivu Klein encouraged the Romanians’ resistance and the revendication of political, religious, economical and cultural rights. In Transilvania of 18th century there was a real war for the relious release of Romanians. Maria Teresia appointed an military governor, general Buccow to smash what began to seem an uprising. Buccow treated the priests and monks as enemies and demolished the monasteries with the cannons.

Romanians that took the greek-catholic confession in the search of their national release tried to use the few freedoms they obtained. They had the oportunity tu study abroad and improve the defense of Romanians’rights. This is how appeared the Transilvanian School a cultural movement that constituted the main engine of Romanian national fight during the 18th century. In 1791 Transilvanian School promoters issued a document known as Supplex Libellus Valachorum that was handed to Emperror Leopold the 2nd. This document asked the Romanian nation to be recognized as a political nation having the same rights with others. The reasons were based on the ancient history of Romanians in Transilvania, the demographical importance of Romanians and the contribution to the taxes. The Emperror sent the document to Dieta from Cluj, where , maintaining their discrimination policy the Hungarians rejected the revendications.

10. The meaning of 1784’s uprising under the lead of Horia Closca and Crisan?

In 1780 when Joseph the 2^nd became emperor of Habsburg Empire Romanians in Transilvania expected an ease of their situation. Joseph the 2^nd himself after two travels in Transilvania wrote: "These poor Romanian subjects, no doubts that they are the most numerous inhabitants of Transilvania, find themselves under such an injustice from Hungarians and Sachsen that we have to wonder that they didn’t left the country". This attitude was to give hopes to Romanians.

Encouraged by the favorable attitude of the Emperor the Romanians sent delegations to Vienna under the lead of serf peasants: Nicola Ursu (with the nickname Horia) and Ion Closca. They asked for the ease of taxes, forced labor on Hungarian’s latifundia and unjust punishments. The lack of results from these interventions made the peasants to search their justice by themselves.

The uprisings started in November 1784 and last for two months. This was a national uprising being directed against Hungarian noblemen, having economical, political and social reasons. This uprising constitutes a continuation of the others attempts towards freedom (1437, 1514, 1570, and 1704). The imperial army smashed the uprising and the leaders were executed by being broken on the wheel.

What is really catching about this uprising is the reaction that western Europeans had towards it. In Holland a newspaper related "The Romanians are the only subjects of His Majesty that are not released from serfdom, all other nations reached the human rights". The future participant at the French revolution Jacques Pierre Brissot de Marville wrote an open letter to Emperor Joseph the 2^nd defending the rights of Romanian peasants: "As far as the Americans had the right to revolt because they were taxed without their agreement much more had this right the Romanians who had no property, no freedom being under the will of their masters".

Even it was smashed in a horrible way Horia’s movement reached some results. The Romanians were no more imposed to forced labor and they had the right to move within the country.

11. The Romanians program during the 1848’s Revolution.

During the 19^th century the emancipation of Romanians began to unite by common action on both sides of Carpatian Mountains. The promoters of the new generation virtually suppress the political borders acting under the same reasons to reach a common national scope. Scholars act on both sides of Carpatian Mountains, men of letters from Transilvania became teachers in the Romanian Principalities exchanging ideas, challenging a new national conscience. In Brasov appears a Romanian newspaper that contributes under the lead of George Baritiu to the political emancipation.

Nicolae Balcescu stipulated the unified Romanian state in 1^st of January 1847: "Our task is the national unity of all Romanians. At first unity in ideas and feelings on the route of political unity … A Romanian nation, a state of 7 billions Romanians. To the creation of this nationality we are supposed to work."

The Hungarian historian Kovacs Endre (in A lengyel kerdes a reformakori Magyaroszagon, Budapest, 1959) confirmed that the idea of a Romanian nation was born in Transilvania. But while the Hungarian noblemen in Dieta from Cluj tried to unite Transilvania with Hungary, the national Romanian program was spreading through Transilvania. There were kept three national assemblies at Blaj, where Simion Barnutiu affirmed: "…the true freedom can be only a national freedom…"

The Romanians freedom in Transilvania couldn’t be described better than the rate of representativity in the legislative chamber of Transilvania, Dieta: at a population of 770.000 of Hungarians szekely and sachsen had all seats in Dieta, while the 1.287.000 Romanians had no representative. The French scholar Paul Bourgoing affirmed: "That’s how the unification of Transilvania with Hungary was realized, without the agreement of Romanians, the most numerous population in the principat" (Les guerres d’idiome et nationalite, Paris 1849).

The leaders of Hungarian revolution from 1848 even they understood the need of a liberal legislation, didn’t accepted the idea that the Romanians have national rights. L. Kossuth affirmed that: " The liberty issued by the Constitution is what can unify ethnics with different languages in a common nation and with this basis we can be the only entity to the Adriatic Sea". This idea is more clearly expressed by Kossuth in front of a Serbian delegation: "In the new Hungary there can be only one political nation – the Hungarian one. Non-Hungarian people are nationality that can enjoy equality in front of the law and some autonomy for religion and education, but they will never become a political nation because this could endanger the territorial integrity of Hungary".

To this allegations the Romanian leaders stated at their assembly in Blaj that: "The Romanian nation announces that by the will of national organization has no intention of breaking the rights of other nationalities, asking only for the same treatment from them".

Avram Iancu the military leader or Romanians in 1848 said that the rejection of nationality and abuses of Hungarian noblemen made the Romanians to rise the weapons. The American historian Keith Hitchins (in Orthodoxy and nationality. Andrei Saguna and the Romanians of Transilvania, Harvard University Press) finds impressive that after harsh fights Avram Iancu addresses the Hungarians as brothers.

At the same time the radical newspaper Marczius Tizenotodike from Pesta wrote:" In Transilvania there are two powers capable to influence the faith of this union: Dieta and the Romanian people – Dieta some hundreds and the Romanians a whole country. The union without Romanians’ agreement is useless…"

In spite of all conflicts and disagreements there were attempts to establish a common language between the leaders. In 1849 Balcescu and Kossuth agreed that Romanians and Hungarians should cooperate. But the military intervention of Russian troops ended the revolution without a chance for better understanding.

The idea of national unity led the revolutionary activists to get involved in all countries inhabited by Romanians abolishing the political borders. This revolutionary movement found a large number of intellectuals and scholars ready to act for the national idea. The defeat of revolution had a main cause in the stubbornness of Hungarians who rejected any sign of national idea for Romanians.

12. The reach of Austro-Hungarian dualism and the new situation of Transilvania.

The crisis of Habsburgic Empire aggravated after the revolution of 1848. Rejecting the idea of reorganizing the empire on federal bases Austria adopted in 1867 an association with the Hungarian oligarchy in order to maintain the ancient regime (Unio duarum nationum contra plures). This compromise between Hungarians and Imperial Court, named Ausgleich – equality, integrated Transilvania for the first time in history in the Hungarian State. Transilvanian autonomy was abolished as well as the few laws for the rights of Romanians.

The Romanians protested against this union by the issue of "Blaj Pronunciament": they stated that Transilvania should stay autonomous based on Dieta in which the Romanians should have their representatives according to their number. Further more the Romanians organize themselves in two political parties based on the national idea.

Political success arose the racism among the Hungarians leaders. In order to achieve the demographically domination over Transilvania a new set of laws put in life the ideology of hungarization or deportation of Romanians. Those actions were taken under slogans like: Magyarorszag vagy lesz magyar vagy nem lesz (Hungary will be Hungarian or will cease to exist). Deszo Bannfy, prime-minister in 1892 declared: "The policy of Hungary can be only a chauvinistic policy!" In 1898 Koszteleszki Gyula wrote: "We should hungarize the minorities or disappear, there is no other chance!"

13. "Hungarization" policy under Austro-Hungarian rule and the Romanian reaction.

The "Nationalities Law" adopted in 1868 by Budapest Parliament, an assembly without Romanian nor Serbian deputies, didn't recognize the status of nation for Romanians or Serbs, the only way they could politically act being as Hungarians. The law stipulated the use of Hungarian language in all official papers, schools and universities. Dispositions concerning minorities rights were put in sentences like: … as possible…, … only if…, … within the limits of…; phrases that attracted arbitrary interpretations and had no guarantee of their application.

By all these means the Kossuth doctrine was put into life: "I recognize only the Hungarian nation. The non-Hungarian ought to become Hungarians of language, of feelings and political interests". Even minimal the nationalities law was considered by many Hungarian politicians as being too liberal and nocive for the Hungarian State. Count Tisza declared in the Budapest Parliament in 1914: "Allow me to repeat that the implementation of 1868's Law would be something insane or a suicidal act for the Hungarian nation". The same politician said that: "The universal vote would be more dangerous than anything because it would crush the Hungarian National State". Prime minister Bannfy sustained: "There are no Romanians in Transilvani. There are Romanian race people in Transilvania, which is totally different". Count Albert Apponyi declared: " it's impossible for nationalities or nationalities rights to exist within the Hungarian State. There is only one nationality: any subject of the Hungarian state is Hungarian. We know no Croatian, Romanian or Slovak nationality. We will never recognize them".

The educational policy of the Hungarian State was intended to hungarize the Slovaks, Serbs, Romanians and other nationalities. The educational law from 1876 put under interdiction school books in other languages than Hungarian. Under a diversity of reasons the Romanian confessional schools were abolished and replaced by public schools in Hungarian language.

Trefort Law in 1879 introduced introduced the Hungarian language as compulsory in all private and confessional schools, from kindergarten to university. Teachers were recruited according to their level in Hungarian fluency. A population of 3.000.000 Romanians in Transilvania had only 5 highschools and 3 teacherschools. Even the Romanian language and literature class in Cluj University was taught in Hungarian. Apponyi Law from 1907 promoted the mass extinction of Romanian schools in Transilvania. Until 1912 were abolished 320 schools and until 1917, 311 more and 417 Romanian teachers were fired. Serving the same task of forced hungarization in 1885 was established in Cluj The Society for Hungarian Culture in Transilvania (Erdelyreszi Magyar Kozmuvelodesi Egyesulet) and in 1881 The Society for the Hungarization of Names (Orszagos Nevmagyarosito Tarsasag) while the reglementations interdicted a public office for persons having non-Hungarian name. The discrimination attitude of Hungarian State towards Romanians is more obviously as we look to the high officials of 18 counties with Romanian majority: none of them was Romanian. The well-known Hungarian sociologist remarked that "non Hungarian intellectual can not become a state official, he is permanently under boycott".

The elective system reflects the inequality within the Hungarian State. Therefore the 1874's Electoral Law established the electoral circumscriptions in order to expel the Romanians. The Romanian comitat of Hunedoara elected 2 deputies while the Szekely comitats having the same population elected 11 deputies. This way entered the Budapest Parliament only few deputies representing the minorities. Facing this problem the Romanian representatives asked for universal vote. Count Tisza rejected this idea on the reason that something like this would ruin the Hungarian State. In order to ensure the Hungarian political supremacy in 1908 a new condition is imposed: the fluency in spoken and written Hungarian.

National discrimination was present even in the reglementations for the Romanian newspapers. The law from 1872 stipulated for the establishment of a new publication a gage of 10.000 florins, a huge amount of money at that time. Trials in the mass-media area could be judged only beneath Tisa River, within Hungarian borders. On many occasions the few Romanians publications were closed and their editors put in jail.

During this period of forced hungarization historian Robert Roessler launched an absurd thesis on Romanian history. He sustained that with the occasion of Roman army redraw the whole population of Dacia left this area, which became a deserted country. The population traveled south of Danube where the Romanian language was formed. After this the new-formed Romanians traveled back to Transilvania. It is remarkable that until the 18^th century no one denied the fact that Transilvanian Romanians would be indigenous. The absurdity of this thesis become more obvious when we take a look at other provinces conquered by Roman Empire. Nowhere happened something like in the theory of Roessler. The population from British Islands left their home with the Roman Legions? Galia, Iberia and regions from Germany were deserted after the redraw of Romans? And France lost its Romance character when Romans evacuated Galia?

The reasons in the back of this theory are of a political character. It appeared during the times when the Romanians began to ask their political rights and equality with other political nations in Transilvania, times when all Transilvanian Romanians hoped for "unification in order to become a strong Romanian nation".

The common aspirations of Romanians in Transilvania with their brothers from Romania manifested during the Romanian Independence War. Transilvanians from Brasov, Fagaras, Sibiu, Hunedoara, who served in Austrian army were ready to fight. Ex-soldiers from 1848 contacted the Bucharest government in order to constitute volunteers units. But the intervention of Gorceakov, foreign ministry of Russia, a supporter of Austria-Hungary, stopped the volunteers units from Transilvania. Despite of this many individuals fought for the Romanian side.

The political and military prestige achieved by Romania through the independence war stimulated the strength and reorganization of Romanians political life in Austria-Hungary. Shortly after the proclamation of Romanian Kingdom (March 1881) a new national conference of Romanians held in Sibiu (May 1881) brought to life a new Romanian political party by the unification of the two that existed before. The new National Romanian Party grew stronger. Secret reports of Austrian officers signaled that among Transilvanian Romanians were elements that stipulated a new Romania for the future (Ernst Rutkowski, Oesterreich-Ungarn und Rumanien 1880-1883 Die Proclamierung des Konigsreiches und die rumanische Irredente). In October 1889 a sachesn newspaper from Sibiu wrote: "Between Transilvanian Romanians and their brothers from the Kingdom are the most tight and direct ties in such a way that they feel as a national entity".

The National Romanian Party from Transilvania had a program that stipulated: the reestablishment of Transilvanian autonomy, the use of Romanian language including the public administration, the strengthen of national church, the fight against the national discrimination, universal vote. In 1892 this party forwarded these revendication to the Imperial Court of Wien by a Memorandum addressed to the Emperor, who sent it without reading to the Hungarian government in Budapest. This political action provoked a violent reaction from Hungarian officialities. The leaders of National Party were prosecuted and condemned up to 5 years of prison. The political tension provoked by these events grew progressive due to the forced assimilation policy promoted by the Hungarian government. Bannfy government tried between 1897-1898 to colonize Szekely population in the Romanian comitats and strengthened the control over Romanians schools.

The leaders of National Romanians Party tried in vane between 1910-1914 to negotiate with count Stefan Tisza, prime minister of Hungary, some revendications concerning the fundamental political rights of majority population in Transilvania. The first two years of World War were disastrous for the Romanians living in Transilvania. The war declaration that the Romanian government addressed to the Austro-Hungary showed that: "during the two years of war and of Romanian neutrality proved that Austro-Hungary, hostile to any inner reformation for the ease of minorities life, seemed to be ready to sacrifice them and incapable of protecting". The declaration underlined the fact that "Romanians were treated as inferior race and condemned to oppression from a foreign element, a minority within the Austro-Hungarian State".

14. The unification of Transilvania with Romania

The deep inner political crisis of Austo Hungary, multi-national state created on a middle age political view, was aggravated by the military defeat and economical disaster. Therefore during the fall of 1918 the Austro-Hungay was dismantled as state. In Transilvania with a percentage of 53,8% Romanians out of 5.257.249 inhabitants, 28,6% Hungarians and 10,8% Germans, the main political force was represented by the Executive Committee of Romanian National Party, which hels a meeting in Oradea affirmed in 12 October 1918 "on the natural basis that each nation can determine by itself and free its faith ... the Romanian nation wishes to use this right and claims to settle among the free nations". In the whole Transilvania Romanians constituted national guards and national councils. The National Romanian Council constituted in Budapest assumed at 10 November "the full power of governation over territories inhabited by Romanians in Transilvania and Hungary".

Transilvania, along Banat and Crisana, united with Romania at 1^st of December 1918 by the free will expressed by 100.000 Romanians – representatives of the province – in a huge meeting at Alba-Iulia. The resolution adopted at that time stipulated: "The National Assembly of Romanians from Transilvania by the gathered representatives decrees the Unification of all Romanians and their territories with Romania". The decision from Alba Iulia, taken with free will, without exterior intervence, was according with the principle of national self-determination proclaimed by President Woodrow Wilson as main criteria for the new world, when United States entered the war. The unification was established on the basis on justice and respect of common life, it sustained the political and confessional equality of nationalities in Transilvania, universal vote, and agrar reform.

Some Hungarian liberals supported the act of unification. It’s important to see the manifest published in Budapest by Ady Endre, Bartok Bela: "We pretend nothing from sister nations. We consider ourselves as a new, free nation as those brothers raising from the ruins of monarchy. We are eased that we are forced no more to sustain the oppression. We are to live together as free nations".

Germans from Banat and Transilvania strongly agreed with the unification: "The sachsen, by free will, proclaim the unification with Romanian Kingdom and congratulate the Romanian people for the achievement of national ideal".

When the Peace Conference in Paris began the negotiations the Unification of Transilvania with Romania was realized on the basis of self-determination principle, exercised by Romanians as well as other populations from the former Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Hungarian delegation at the Conference claimed all territories where the population pronounced for unification: Romania, Serbia, and Czech. Representatives of United Kingdom, France, Italy, and United States studied the huge files with Hungarian argumentation for two months. The commissions presided by politicians from United Kingdom, France, Italy had no member from Romania or Serbia. After the study of Hungarian argumentation the Conference rejected the Hungarian argumentation. The well-known Austrian historian Fritz Feliner demonstrated that "no peace conference was so long and well prepared, never the controversial problems were put in such a large debate". At 4^th of July the treaty was signed in the Palace of Trianon. The British historian R.W. Seton Watson said, "Trianon treaty closed the most important period of Romanian history".

The formation of Romanian national state was not a random event, something established by a treaty, it was an evolution of Romanian people and the treaty only recognized an event that would take place under any other circumstances.

15. The outcoming of Hungarian revisionist policy.

Signing the Trianon Treaty the Hungarian government didn't ceased to dream of Saint Stephen's Kingdom. Engouraged by the revisionistic attitude of Mussolini, Hungary signed in 1927 an alliance treaty with Italy, the beginning of a revisionist polcy against Czech Republic, Yugoslavia and Romania. The Hungarian promoters of this policy were oligarchs that based their power on latifundias, restricted vote right, mass-media control and restrictions on the civic rights. In his conferences in England during November 1933 count Bethlen Istvan even he recogniyed that the anexation of Transilvania to Hungary was impossible he asked for Transilvanian autonomy in order to create a new national problem within the Central Europe. The horthyst revisionism and all actions taken by Italy and Germany at that time were against Nations Society Pact which stipulated "each member should respect the territorial integrity and political independence of other members".

Facing an aggressive propaganda foreign minister of Romania at that time declared: "The scope of Hungarian revisionism is to provide reasons for political agitations". The redraw of Germany in 1933 from Nations Society was the first sign of an expansionistic political orientation. A chain of events followed: reocupation of Rin zone, estableshment of Berlin-Rome Axe, anti-Comintern Pact, the Mussolini's speech in favour of Hungarian revisionism. All these events strenthend the ambitions of Hungary. In March 1938 through the anexation of Austria, Germany became Hungary's neighbour. The pompous visit that Horthy paid to Hitler prepared the first concrete actions. The conference and agreement of Munich in 1938 dismanteled Czecho-Slovakia: gave to Germany the Sudet region, while Hungary received the southern part of Slovakia: 12.000 km² and a population over 1.000.000. At 11 April 1939 Hungary redraw from Nations Society confirming its aggressive policy.

16. What is the meaning of the fascist Diktat of Wien?

The horthyst revisionism reached an end in 30 August 1940 when foreign ministers of Germany and Italy imposed to Romanian government an agreement upon the anexation to Hungary of Nothwestern Transilvania. Diktat of Wien took place in a period when most of Europe found itself under Fascist rule. In 15 Julz 1940 Hitler wrote to Carol the 2^nd, Romanian king: "Any attempt to avoid the dangers threatening your country will be a failure. Sooner or later the result would be even the destruction of Romania". Two days before the Diktat of Wien Hitler said to Ciano, italian foreign minister: "Hungary owes the satisfaction of its revendications to fascism and nationalism". The anexation's decision was taken before, the conference was supposed only to make the things known to the Romanian government. The German foreign minister replied the protests of Romanian delegation: "Romania has as alternatives: to loose the whole Transilvania and suffer a political catastrophe or to accept this sacrifice".

Dictate of Wien imposed to Romania to cease a territory of 42.243 km² and a population of 2.603.589, of what only 968.371 was Hungarians. The Romanians rejected this act of aggression inspired by the Hungarian oligarchy. Historian Nicolae Iorga declared: "This Dictate represents the victory of Hungarian noblemen who asked for the Cluj region where they had their latifundia. A social class of the past, having no future which made a good use of a political conjuncture". After the announcement of Dictate all Romanian political parties organized protest meetings, asking for military resistance.

Radio Londra put on air: "30 of August may be considered as the darkest day of Romania. Today at Wien took place an act of aggression". Recognized only by fascist states this annexation was rejected by anti-fascist powers. Prime-minister Winston Churchill declared "Romania suffered a territorial mutilation. We do not intend to recognize a territorial exchange that occurred during the war". In front of the American Committee of Foreign Affairs, Cordel Hull, secretary of State stated that: "This annexations occurred by external military force and inner subversive activity. Each occupied country suffered a terror treatment".

Before the preparations of annexed territory were done, the horthyst occupation introduced a regime of chauvinism and anti-Semitism, starting a military terror against anti-fascists". A large number of fascist organizations send their members in northern Transilvania. Members of Rongyos Garda, Nemszetorseg, Tuzharcosok, Levente participated in terrorist actions. All these people were educated in a revisionist spirit entertained by books like Nincs Kegyelem (No mercy) of Ducso Csaba. This books provided ideas like" our scope must be the extinction of Romanians by all means: assassinate, poison, and fire...". In his book a young levente declared his credo: "I’ll kill any Romanian in my way. There’ll be no mercy. I’ll put on fire Romanians villages. I’ll put under the sword the entire population. I’ll poison the fountains and I’ll kill even the children in the cradles. I’ll kill all Romanians and then in Transilvania will be only one race: mine!".

The administration of annexed territory characterized by numerous violence acts against Romanian population. Hundreds of villagers from Ip, Trasnea, Muresenii Birgaului were assassinated, 200.000 Romanians were expelled, Romanians bishoprics of Oradea and Sighet were abolished, Romanians schools were closed, Romanians magazines and newspapers were interdicted, politicians were imprisoned. Between 1940-1944 northern Transilvania suffered an economically exploitation regime. At the same time was put in practice the "Final Solution" for Jews – 150.000 of them were transported to German concentration camps.

17. How was Transilvania eliberated?

In the summer of 1944 Romania turned against Germany and started the war on Allied side. In the night of 23 August 1944 Romanian army attacked the German forces that found on its territory. In 8 days the territory south of Carpatian Mountains was eliberated. Until 25 October Romanian army fought for the northern Transilvania. A Romanian Head Quarter communicate transmitted: "In northern Transilvania Romanian troops in cooperation with Soviet forces occupied Oradea and Carei towns thus eliberating the entire Transilvania". Fighting for 260 days the Romanian troops contributed to the eliberation of Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The Romanian action stopped the Germans armies to defend on Carpatian line, influencing the evolution of future events. By the eliberation of Transilvania the Wien Dictate was canceled in fact.

At 12 September 1944 Romanian signed the Convention with U.R.S.S., U.K. and U.S.A. that stipulated the anulation of Wien Dictate. At 13 March 1945 at a meeting of Romanian government, Romanian Prime Minister Petru Groza proclaimed the implementation of Romanian administration in northern Transilvania. In spite of this at the Paris Conference in 1946 the Hungarian representative asked 22.000 km², absurd pretension for a new annexation. The Czech representative declared towards new Hungarian claims: "We had heard this speech many times between 1919 and 1938. All Hungarian leaders spoke like that. Thus we had not heard of a rejection of 20 years of fascist regime and feudal policy. Add to all the fact that Hungary started the first anti-Semitic campaign even before Hitler did. What happened to the large Jew minority living in Hungary, almost half a million?". During the conference debates this pretensions were rejected. Therefore the peace treaty with Romania contained this line: "Decisions from Wien are considered as canceled. The border between Romania and Hungary remains the way it was at 1^st of January 1938".

At 10 December 1946 the relations between Romania and Hungary were re-established. Between 23-25 November 1947 a governmental Hungarian delegation lead by Prime Minister Lajos Dinnyes visited Romania, a first visit of a Hungarian Prime Minister in Romania. Lajos Dinnyes declared: "The problem between our states was resolved. Hungarian public opinion thanks the Romanian government for the civil rights enjoyed by Hungarians living in Transilvania".